Organized Activity Involvement
Research has consistently found that adolescents who engage in organized activities at school and in the community are less likely to engage in delinquent behaviors and illicit substance use. The Adolescent Social Development lab is especially interested in whether different types of activities are more or less protective. For instance, are church-based or religious activities more protective than team sports involvement? Does this vary by adolescent gender? Our lab is also investigating specific explanatory mechanisms, such as exposure to problem peers, that link adolescent activity involvement and reduced levels of problem behavior.
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Highlights
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Organized Activities and Developmental Outcomes
As youth navigate through their social world, they engage in a variety of activities that help support positive development. Psychologists have recognized the importance of organized activities in providing assets during times of relative plasticity, a perspective labeled positive youth development (PYD; Feldman & Matjasko, 2005; Feldman-Farb & Matjasko, 2011; Larson, 2000; Lerner et al., 2013). The term “organized activities” refers to a broad range of adult-sponsored activities, such as church involvement, volunteering, school and community clubs, sports, and arts/music, that exist outside the traditional school curriculum and are present across multiple contexts (Bohnert, Fredricks, & Randall, 2010; Eccles, Barber, Stone, & Hunt, 2003; Metzger, Crean, & Forbs-Jones, 2009). Adolescents derive unique benefits from specific types of organized activity involvement (Hansen, Larson, & Dworkin, 2003; Larson, Hansen, & Moneta, 2006), which additionally vary depending on whether the activity occurs at school or in the community (Irvin, Farmer, Leung, Thompson, & Hutchins, 2010; Mahoney, Larson, Eccles, & Lord, 2005).
Organized activity involvement helps adolescents create social support networks with prosocial peers and adult mentors, fine-tune social and intellectual skills necessary for success in future academic and job environments, and make meaningful contributions to their community (Eccles et al., 2003). Researchers have also considered the developmental implications of the intensity of involvement in organized activities as well as the impact of individual activities, and research with these age groups has pinpointed several developmental outcomes of interest, such as the promotion of social competence (Fletcher et al., 2003; Posner & Vandell, 1999) and academic achievement behavior (Eccles et al., 2003; Lagace-Seguin & Case, 2010; McHale et al., 2001; Powell et al., 1999), and reduction of or protection against risky, delinquent behavior (Bartko & Eccles, 2003; Bohnert & Garber, 2007; Bohnert et al., 2007; Duncan et al., 2002; Fauth et al., 2007; Fredricks & Eccles, 2008; Linver et al., 2009; Wilson et al., 2009).
Furthermore, high levels of involvement in organized activities during childhood and adolescence are associated with the promotion of positive developmental assets, especially greater academic achievement, psychological well-being, and social competence; however, the results of several studies indicate that organized activity involvement also has long-term developmental implications, such as greater post-secondary educational attainment, psychological adjustment and resiliency, prosocial peer networks, and volunteering and voting behaviors in adulthood. Researchers have also been interested in how participation in specific organized activities promotes the acquisition of developmental assets. In both childhood and adolescence, participation in school clubs and community civic activities promotes higher social competence, while faith-based activities provide opportunities to socialize with prosocial peers and adult mentors.
Finally, although sports have received much research attention, contradicting findings make this activity difficult to study using the PYD perspective or the deficit model approach, independently. For example, some studies indicate that sports participation is linked with the acquisition of positive developmental assets, such as higher levels of psychosocial maturity, and self-perceptions of competence in the sports domain (Fletcher et al., 2003; Jacobs et al., 2005), as well as the reduction of problem behaviors, including lower levels of anxiety and depressive symptoms (Fauth et al., 2007). However, other studies (Duncan et al., 2002; Fauth et al., 2007; Linver et al., 2009; Wilson et al., 2009) have also found an inverse relationship between sports participation, delinquency, and illicit substance use. Thus, involvement in sports is not only associated with the acquisition of positive developmental outcomes, and lower levels of problem behaviors, but such involvement also promotes engagement in risky behavior, like alcohol consumption. Because this is the case, Feldman and Matjasko (2005) suggest that the quality of the organized activity experience may be more central to positive youth development. Examination of the quality of organized activities requires researchers to gather information on the internal mechanisms, such as peer group interactions and leadership from adult mentors, within the activity context. Such mediators may provide an explanation for why the association between involvement in specific organized activities, like sports, and developmental outcomes, including higher levels of alcohol consumption, occurs (Hansen et al., 2003; Larson et al., 2006).
Organized activity involvement helps adolescents create social support networks with prosocial peers and adult mentors, fine-tune social and intellectual skills necessary for success in future academic and job environments, and make meaningful contributions to their community (Eccles et al., 2003). Researchers have also considered the developmental implications of the intensity of involvement in organized activities as well as the impact of individual activities, and research with these age groups has pinpointed several developmental outcomes of interest, such as the promotion of social competence (Fletcher et al., 2003; Posner & Vandell, 1999) and academic achievement behavior (Eccles et al., 2003; Lagace-Seguin & Case, 2010; McHale et al., 2001; Powell et al., 1999), and reduction of or protection against risky, delinquent behavior (Bartko & Eccles, 2003; Bohnert & Garber, 2007; Bohnert et al., 2007; Duncan et al., 2002; Fauth et al., 2007; Fredricks & Eccles, 2008; Linver et al., 2009; Wilson et al., 2009).
Furthermore, high levels of involvement in organized activities during childhood and adolescence are associated with the promotion of positive developmental assets, especially greater academic achievement, psychological well-being, and social competence; however, the results of several studies indicate that organized activity involvement also has long-term developmental implications, such as greater post-secondary educational attainment, psychological adjustment and resiliency, prosocial peer networks, and volunteering and voting behaviors in adulthood. Researchers have also been interested in how participation in specific organized activities promotes the acquisition of developmental assets. In both childhood and adolescence, participation in school clubs and community civic activities promotes higher social competence, while faith-based activities provide opportunities to socialize with prosocial peers and adult mentors.
Finally, although sports have received much research attention, contradicting findings make this activity difficult to study using the PYD perspective or the deficit model approach, independently. For example, some studies indicate that sports participation is linked with the acquisition of positive developmental assets, such as higher levels of psychosocial maturity, and self-perceptions of competence in the sports domain (Fletcher et al., 2003; Jacobs et al., 2005), as well as the reduction of problem behaviors, including lower levels of anxiety and depressive symptoms (Fauth et al., 2007). However, other studies (Duncan et al., 2002; Fauth et al., 2007; Linver et al., 2009; Wilson et al., 2009) have also found an inverse relationship between sports participation, delinquency, and illicit substance use. Thus, involvement in sports is not only associated with the acquisition of positive developmental outcomes, and lower levels of problem behaviors, but such involvement also promotes engagement in risky behavior, like alcohol consumption. Because this is the case, Feldman and Matjasko (2005) suggest that the quality of the organized activity experience may be more central to positive youth development. Examination of the quality of organized activities requires researchers to gather information on the internal mechanisms, such as peer group interactions and leadership from adult mentors, within the activity context. Such mediators may provide an explanation for why the association between involvement in specific organized activities, like sports, and developmental outcomes, including higher levels of alcohol consumption, occurs (Hansen et al., 2003; Larson et al., 2006).
Rural Context and Organized Activities
Youth attending schools in rural communities (e.g., agricultural communities, small rural towns) may have less access to organized activities when compared to adolescents residing in urban and suburban communities (Harde, Sullivan, & Crowson, 2009). Although access to organized activities in rural communities may be more limited, the experience within specific activities may be differentially meaningful for rural adolescents compared to involvement in the same activity for urban or suburban youth because experiences within family, community, church, and school often overlap for rural youth (Elder & Conger, 2000; Ludden, 2011). Therefore, within rural communities, organized activities capitalize on the variety of available resources to provide the optimal experience for positive youth development.
A recent study by Ferris and colleagues (2013) examined associations between organized activity involvement, academic achievement, and problem behavior utilizing a sample of youth from a non-agricultural based rural community. Results of this study indicate church and arts/music involvement were associated with higher levels of academic achievement for boys, while participation in volunteering was associated with lower GPA’s. For girls, participation on organized school- and community-sponsored sports teams was associated with higher academic achievement and reduced problem behavior. Overall, these findings highlight the educational and developmental importance of organized activity involvement for youth residing in non-agricultural based rural communities, and the current study adds to the organized activity literature by providing an overview of the breadth of organized activities available to youth in rural settings. Future research in this area should continue to examine organized activities unique to rural communities, such as 4-H involvement, and incorporate the use of person-centered approaches since previous research (e.g., Metzger et al., 2009) suggests adolescents are often simultaneously involved in multiple organized activities at once.
A recent study by Ferris and colleagues (2013) examined associations between organized activity involvement, academic achievement, and problem behavior utilizing a sample of youth from a non-agricultural based rural community. Results of this study indicate church and arts/music involvement were associated with higher levels of academic achievement for boys, while participation in volunteering was associated with lower GPA’s. For girls, participation on organized school- and community-sponsored sports teams was associated with higher academic achievement and reduced problem behavior. Overall, these findings highlight the educational and developmental importance of organized activity involvement for youth residing in non-agricultural based rural communities, and the current study adds to the organized activity literature by providing an overview of the breadth of organized activities available to youth in rural settings. Future research in this area should continue to examine organized activities unique to rural communities, such as 4-H involvement, and incorporate the use of person-centered approaches since previous research (e.g., Metzger et al., 2009) suggests adolescents are often simultaneously involved in multiple organized activities at once.
Organized Activities and Sociopolitical Values
Political theorists and developmental psychologists hypothesize that adult social and political values (hence forth referred to as ‘sociopolitical values’), such as perceptions of authority, one’s country, spiritual connectedness, material wealth, and group dominance, have developmental roots in adolescence (e.g., Altemeyer, 1996; Benson, Roehlkepartain, & Rude, 2003). Values concerning the self and society are posited to be largely influenced by structured, group experiences (Youniss, McLellan, & Yates, 1997; Zaff, Malanchunk, & Eccles, 2008). Organized activity involvement is one type of structured group experience that may be especially important for adolescent sociopolitical development. Engagement in organized activities provides youth with early exposure to social systems (Eccles & Barber, 1999) and structures that may challenge, promote, or deter developing values (Mahoney, Larson, Eccles, & Lord, 2005). Sociopolitical values are an integral component of adolescents’ political identity, and represent a diverse set of personal priorities that guide specific attitudes concerning the nature of political and social systems (Bardi & Schwartz, 1996). These values consist of patriotism (attachment to one’s nation; Flanagan, Syversten, Gill, Gallay, & Cumsille, 2009), authoritarianism (reverence for authority and strong endorsement of hierarchy; Altemeyer, 1996), and spirituality (connection and belief in a higher power; Benson et al., 2003). Additionally, values such as social dominance (preference for the dominance of one’s own in-group over others; Duriez & Soenens, 2009) and materialism (view that material goods are important; Kasser, 2005) may also guild social attitudes. While these values are distinct from one another, they are also interrelated in that they are central to adolescent’s social understanding.
Sociopolitical values are hypothesized to form during adolescence; however, the developmental contexts that shape these values have been largely unexplored. As a result, a recent paper by Oosterhoff and colleagues (in press) examined organized activities as contexts for the development of sociopolitical values during adolescence. Results of this study indicate that greater involvement in church and sports was related to higher levels of spirituality. Involvement in sports was also related to higher levels of materialism and authoritarianism. Greater volunteer involvement was related to lower social dominance, and involvement in arts/music was associated with less patriotism. Overall, these findings suggest that adolescence is a developmental period marked by an expansion of personal belief systems, the formation of one’s social identity, and a budding sense of sociopolitical agency (Christens, Peterson, Reid, & Garcia-Reid, 2012; Eccles et al., 2003; Youniss & Yates, 1997). These findings point to substantial coordination among activity participation and sociopolitical values, and further demonstrate the importance of considering organized activities as distinct developmental contexts that can promote emerging views of the social world. Scholars and educators should be aware of the social and political implications of organized activity involvement, and future research is needed to explore the mechanisms through which these contexts influence adolescent value development.
Sociopolitical values are hypothesized to form during adolescence; however, the developmental contexts that shape these values have been largely unexplored. As a result, a recent paper by Oosterhoff and colleagues (in press) examined organized activities as contexts for the development of sociopolitical values during adolescence. Results of this study indicate that greater involvement in church and sports was related to higher levels of spirituality. Involvement in sports was also related to higher levels of materialism and authoritarianism. Greater volunteer involvement was related to lower social dominance, and involvement in arts/music was associated with less patriotism. Overall, these findings suggest that adolescence is a developmental period marked by an expansion of personal belief systems, the formation of one’s social identity, and a budding sense of sociopolitical agency (Christens, Peterson, Reid, & Garcia-Reid, 2012; Eccles et al., 2003; Youniss & Yates, 1997). These findings point to substantial coordination among activity participation and sociopolitical values, and further demonstrate the importance of considering organized activities as distinct developmental contexts that can promote emerging views of the social world. Scholars and educators should be aware of the social and political implications of organized activity involvement, and future research is needed to explore the mechanisms through which these contexts influence adolescent value development.